Effects of Alcohol

From the second you take your first sip, alcohol starts affecting your body and mind. After one or two drinks you may start feeling more sociable, but drink too much and basic human functions, such as walking and talking become much harder. You might also start saying things you don’t mean and behaving out of character. Some of alcohol’s effects disappear overnight – while others can stay with you a lot longer, or indeed become permanent.

- Liver disease used to affect mainly drinkers in middle age, but now sufferers are getting younger. Up to one in three adults in the UK drinks enough alcohol to be at risk of developing alcohol-related liver disease.

- Alcohol misuse is an important factor in a number of cancers, including liver cancer and mouth cancer, both of which are on the increase. Alcohol is second only to smoking as a risk factor for oral and digestive tract cancers. Evidence suggests that this is because alcohol breaks down into a substance called acetaldehyde, which can bind to proteins in the mouth. This can trigger an inflammatory response from the body – in the most severe cases, cancerous cells can develop.

- Chronic pancreatitis is another disease associated with heavy drinking. It’s caused when your pancreas becomes inflamed and cells become damaged. Diabetes is a common side effect of chronic pancreatitis. There’s evidence that heavy drinking can reduce the body’s sensitivity to insulin, which can trigger type 2 diabetes.


ALCOHOL AND THE BRAIN

Alcohol alters the brain’s chemistry and increases the risk of depression. It is often associated with a range of mental health problems. A recent British survey found that people suffering from anxiety or depression were twice as likely to be heavy or problem drinkers.

Extreme levels of drinking (defined as more than 30 units per day for several weeks) can occasionally cause ‘psychosis’, a severe mental illness where hallucinations and delusions of persecution develop. Psychotic symptoms can also occur when very heavy drinkers suddenly stop drinking and develop a condition known as ‘delirium tremens’.

Heavy drinking often leads to work and family problems, which in turn can lead to isolation and depression. For heavy drinkers who drink daily and become dependent on alcohol, there can be withdrawal symptoms (nervousness, tremors, palpitations) which resemble severe anxiety, and may even cause phobias, such as a fear of going out.

Source: www.drinkaware.co.uk

An understanding of the effects of stress...

Whether it's getting a cold during exam time or feeling run-down after a big meeting, we've all experienced feeling sick following a particularly stressful time at work or school. Is this merely coincidence, or is it possible that stress can actually make us sick? In a new report in Perspectives on Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, psychologist Janice K. Kiecolt-Glaser from the Ohio State University College of Medicine reviews research investigating how stress can wreak havoc on our bodies and provides some suggestions to further our understanding of this connection.

The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) investigates how stress and negative emotions (such as depression and anxiety) affect our health. Over the past 30 years, researchers in this field have uncovered a number of ways that stress adversely affects our health, and specifically, how stress can damage our immune system. Numerous studies have shown that stressed individuals show weaker immune responses to vaccines, and as Kiecolt-Glaser observes, "The evidence that stress and distress impair vaccine responses has obvious public health relevance because infectious diseases can be so deadly." Stress and depression have been shown to increase the risk of getting infections and also result in delayed wound healing.

Inflammation is the body's way of removing harmful stimuli and also starts the process of healing, via release of a variety of chemicals known as proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., interleukin-6). However, too much inflammation can be damaging and has been implicated in the development of many age-related diseases, including Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's disease, arthritis, and Type II diabetes. Negative emotions and psychological stressors increase the production of proinflammatory cytokines. A recent study revealed that men and women who serve as caregivers to spouses with dementia (and thus are under constant stress) have a four times larger annual rate of increase in serum interleukin-6 levels compared to individuals without caregiving responsibilities.

What's more, the changes in interleukin-6 levels among former caregivers did not differ from current caregivers, even following the death of the impaired spouse, indicating that chronic stress may cause the immune system to age quickly. Kiecolt-Glaser notes, "These stress-related changes in inflammation provide evidence of one mechanism through which stressors may accelerate risk of a host of age-related diseases."

Kiecolt-Glaser argues that our environment should be taken into account when studying the link between stress and our health. For instance, diet may modify interactions between psychological and immunological responses: Omega-3 fatty acids (found in fish and walnuts) can reduce production of some proinflammtory chemicals and increasing levels of omega-3 fatty acids may result in positive effects on mood and the immune system. Environmental toxins (such as pesticides and air pollutants) can have extremely negative effects on the immune system and these effects may be intensified in stressed individuals, increasing their risk for developing allergies, asthma, and viral infections.

Kiecolt-Glaser suggests that to most effectively tackle the questions raised by recent PNI research, cross-discipline training needs to be emphasized for students. Psychology students who gain a strong foundation in areas such as biology and physiology will be able to enter into powerful collaborations with scientists conducting immunology research. Kiecolt-Glaser concludes that the questions answered by these collaborations will advance PNI as well as psychology in general.

Source: Association for Psychological Science

Gastroenteritis and Food Poisoning

Gastroenteritis is a term which is not interchangeable with food poisoning, as many believe. Gastroenteritis means irritation and inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, which includes the stomach and small and large intestines. The condition is usually due to bacteria, food poisoning, parasites, or viruses, and it often results in diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting. Gastroenteritis is commonly called gastric flu or stomach flu although it has no relation to the influenza virus.

What is the difference between gastroenteritis and food poisoning?

Specifically, gastroenteritis refers to infection/inflammation of the mucous membrane of the digestive tract, while food poisoning refers to a type of bacterial gastroenteritis that was caused by something the patient ate. Food poisoning can also refer to chemical food poisoning, as might happen if you ate a poisonous mushroom. In broad terms, gastroenteritis describes what the patient has, while food poisoning describes how the patient got it.

Source: http://www.medicalnewstoday.com

Swine Flu (H1N1)

Swine flu is a type of virus. It's named for a virus that pigs can get. People do not normally get swine flu, but human infections can and do happen. The virus is contagious and can spread from human to human. Symptoms of swine flu in people are similar to the symptoms of regular human flu and include fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, headache, chills and fatigue.

There are antiviral medicines you can take to prevent or treat swine flu. There is no vaccine available right now to protect against swine flu. You can help prevent the spread of germs that cause respiratory illnesses like influenza by:

-Covering your nose and mouth with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. Throw the tissue in the trash after you use it.
-Washing your hands often with soap and water, especially after you cough or sneeze. You can also use alcohol-based hand cleaners.
-Avoiding touching your eyes, nose or mouth. Germs spread this way.
-Trying to avoid close contact with sick people.
-Staying home from work or school if you are sick.

Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/h1n1fluswineflu.html

Tryptophan – A Natural Anti-depressant

Research has shown that tryptophan or serotonin is effective for more than depression. Various forms of defective impulse control and obsessive-compulsive disorders are also strongly affected by serotonin nerve activity. Suicidal behavior, compulsive gambling, irrationally dangerous thrill seeking behavior and pyromania (compulsive fire starting), have been shown to be correlated with low serotonin neural activity, combined with excessive dopaminergic or noradrenergic activity.

Tryptophan has two important functions. First, a small amount of the tryptophan we get in our diet (about 3%) is converted into niacin (vitamin B3) by the liver. This conversion can help prevent the symptoms associated with niacin deficiency when dietary intake of this vitamin is low.

Second, tryptophan serves as a precursor for serotonin, a neurotransmitter that helps the body regulate appetite, sleep patterns, and mood. Because of its ability to raise serotonin levels, tryptophan has been used therapeutically in the treatment of a variety of conditions, most notably insomnia, depression, and anxiety. Tryptophan depletion has a ,negative impact on sleep. Tryptophan helps to regulate appetite, helps you to sleep better and elevate your mood.

The following foods contain tryptophan:

Dairy products such as cottage cheese, cheese and milk,
Soy products such as soy milk, tofu and soybean nuts,
Seafood, Meats, Poultry, Whole grains, Beans, Rice, Hummus, Lentils, Hazelnuts, Peanuts, Eggs, Sesame seeds and sunflower seeds

Do not take Medicine with Juice

Patients often are warned against taking certain pills with grapefruit juice, which can turn normal doses of a drug into a toxic overdose. Now, researchers have raised a new concern: grapefruit, orange and apple juices may also block the effects of some drugs, wiping out any potential benefit to patients, according to a new study.

Healthy volunteers took a dose of the allergy drug fexofenadine, downing it with water or juice. When the drug was taken with grapefruit juice, for instance, only half of the dose was absorbed into the bloodstream, compared to taking it with water. The findings were presented this week at the national meeting of the American Chemical Society by researchers at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario.

So far, the investigators have found that grapefruit, orange and apple juices reduce absorption of the anticancer drug etoposide; certain beta blockers used to treat high blood pressure; cyclosporine, used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs; and certain antibiotics. Additional drugs are likely to be added to the list, said David G. Bailey, a professor of clinical pharmacology at the University of Western Ontario.

“This is just the tip of the iceberg,” Dr. Bailey said in a press release. “I’m sure we’ll find more and more drugs that are affected this way.”

It was Dr. Bailey who originally identified the potential harm in consuming medications with grapefruit juice, showing that it can interact with drugs in a way that raises blood concentration of the medication to dangerous levels. It’s known to affect about 50 drugs, ranging from cholesterol-lowering statins to Viagra. Some drugs now carry labels warning consumers against taking them with grapefruit juice or fresh grapefruit.

Dr. Bailey said patients should consult with their doctors or pharmacists before taking any medications with grapefruit or other juices. The best advice, however, is to take most medications only with water.

Source: http://www.aolhealth.com/conditions/by-the-way-doctor-whats-the-problem-with-grapefruit-juice-and-statins

Basic principles of medical ethics..

Easy as A, B, C, D, E and F

Physicians deal with many ethical issues on a daily basis. Fundamental ethical principles assist us in understanding, negotiating and navigating these issues. Ethical dilemmas arise when two or more ethical principles apply in a particular case and would lead to different outcomes. In these situations physicians must balance these principles to arrive at the best course of action. There are other approaches to bioethics in which other principles may apply. However, in caring for patients, it is important for physicians to understand the following fundamental ethical principles:

Autonomy: “Self rule”- Physicians must respect a patient’s right to make decisions regarding his medical care. Competent, informed patients have the right to choose among treatment options and refuse any unwanted medical interventions. By providing informed consent and following patients’ wishes, physicians demonstrate their respect for the patient’s autonomy.

Beneficence: Physicians must act in the best interests of their patients. Patients are vulnerable because of illness and lack medical expertise. Therefore, patients rely on physicians to offer sound advice and to place the their well-being first. If patients lack decision-making capacity, they need to be protected from making decisions that are contrary to their best interests. Physicians must put the interests of their patients ahead of their own interests or those of third parties such as insurers or managed care organizations.

Confidentiality: Physicians must maintain the confidentiality of medical information. Confidentiality respects patient autonomy and encourages patients to present for care and be candid. However, confidentiality can be overridden in order to protect third parties when there is the potential for serious, foreseeable harm to third parties. Legally mandated reporting includes certain infectious diseases like tuberculosis, loss of consciousness or child or elder abuse or domestic violence.

Do no harm: The principle of non-maleficence directs physicians to “do no harm” to patients. Physicians must refrain from providing ineffective treatments or acting with malice toward patients. This principle, however, offers little useful guidance to physicians since many beneficial therapies also have serious risks. The pertinent ethical issue is whether the benefits outweigh the burdens.

Equality: The principle of distributive justice deals with issues of treating patients equally. Physicians should treat similarly situated patients similarly and allocate resources justly. In the face of limited health care resources, physicians should practice cost-effective medicine. Physicians should make recommendations and decisions based on ethically pertinent considerations.

Fairness: The principle of procedural justice requires that the process for making decisions for patients be fair and just. For example the process by which patients appeal rulings by the insurance company or by which organs are allocated must be fair and just.